refactor(tvix/eval): flatten call stack of VM using generators r/5964

Warning: This is probably the biggest refactor in tvix-eval history,
so far.

This replaces all instances of trampolines and recursion during
evaluation of the VM loop with generators. A generator is an
asynchronous function that can be suspended to yield a message (in our
case, vm::generators::GeneratorRequest) and receive a
response (vm::generators::GeneratorResponsee).

The `genawaiter` crate provides an interpreter for generators that can
drive their execution and lets us move control flow between the VM and
suspended generators.

To do this, massive changes have occured basically everywhere in the
code. On a high-level:

1. The VM is now organised around a frame stack. A frame is either a
   call frame (execution of Tvix bytecode) or a generator frame (a
   running or suspended generator).

   The VM has an outer loop that pops a frame off the frame stack, and
   then enters an inner loop either driving the execution of the
   bytecode or the execution of a generator.

   Both types of frames have several branches that can result in the
   frame re-enqueuing itself, and enqueuing some other work (in the
   form of a different frame) on top of itself. The VM will eventually
   resume the frame when everything "above" it has been suspended.

   In this way, the VM's new frame stack takes over much of the work
   that was previously achieved by recursion.

2. All methods previously taking a VM have been refactored into async
   functions that instead emit/receive generator messages for
   communication with the VM.

   Notably, this includes *all* builtins.

This has had some other effects:

- Some test have been removed or commented out, either because they
  tested code that was mostly already dead (nix_eq) or because they
  now require generator scaffolding which we do not have in place for
  tests (yet).

- Because generator functions are technically async (though no async
  IO is involved), we lose the ability to use much of the Rust
  standard library e.g. in builtins. This has led to many algorithms
  being unrolled into iterative versions instead of iterator
  combinations, and things like sorting had to be implemented from scratch.

- Many call sites that previously saw a `Result<..., ErrorKind>`
  bubble up now only see the result value, as the error handling is
  encapsulated within the generator loop.

  This reduces number of places inside of builtin implementations
  where error context can be attached to calls that can fail.
  Currently what we gain in this tradeoff is significantly more
  detailed span information (which we still need to bubble up, this
  commit does not change the error display).

  We'll need to do some analysis later of how useful the errors turn
  out to be and potentially introduce some methods for attaching
  context to a generator frame again.

This change is very difficult to do in stages, as it is very much an
"all or nothing" change that affects huge parts of the codebase. I've
tried to isolate changes that can be isolated into the parent CLs of
this one, but this change is still quite difficult to wrap one's mind
and I'm available to discuss it and explain things to any reviewer.

Fixes: b/238, b/237, b/251 and potentially others.
Change-Id: I39244163ff5bbecd169fe7b274df19262b515699
Reviewed-on: https://cl.tvl.fyi/c/depot/+/8104
Reviewed-by: raitobezarius <tvl@lahfa.xyz>
Reviewed-by: Adam Joseph <adam@westernsemico.com>
Tested-by: BuildkiteCI

3 files changed, 1424 insertions, 51 deletions

diff --git a/tvix/eval/src/vm/generators.rs b/tvix/eval/src/vm/generators.rs
index 2a6a8fa730d8..df1696f08d5c 100644
--- a/tvix/eval/src/vm/generators.rs
+++ b/tvix/eval/src/vm/generators.rs
@@ -136,7 +136,6 @@ impl Display for GeneratorRequest {
             GeneratorRequest::StringCoerce(v, kind) => match kind {
                 CoercionKind::Weak => write!(f, "weak_string_coerce({})", v),
                 CoercionKind::Strong => write!(f, "strong_string_coerce({})", v),
-                CoercionKind::ThunksOnly => todo!("remove this branch (not live)"),
             },
             GeneratorRequest::Call(v) => write!(f, "call({})", v),
             GeneratorRequest::EnterLambda { lambda, .. } => {
@@ -211,6 +210,240 @@ pub fn pin_generator(
     Box::pin(f)
 }
 
+impl<'o> VM<'o> {
+    /// Helper function to re-enqueue the current generator while it
+    /// is awaiting a value.
+    fn reenqueue_generator(&mut self, span: LightSpan, generator: Generator) {
+        self.frames.push(Frame::Generator {
+            generator,
+            span,
+            state: GeneratorState::AwaitingValue,
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Helper function to enqueue a new generator.
+    pub(super) fn enqueue_generator<F, G>(&mut self, span: LightSpan, gen: G)
+    where
+        F: Future<Output = Result<Value, ErrorKind>> + 'static,
+        G: FnOnce(GenCo) -> F,
+    {
+        self.frames.push(Frame::Generator {
+            span,
+            state: GeneratorState::Running,
+            generator: Gen::new(|co| pin_generator(gen(co))),
+        });
+    }
+
+    /// Run a generator frame until it yields to the outer control loop, or runs
+    /// to completion.
+    ///
+    /// The return value indicates whether the generator has completed (true),
+    /// or was suspended (false).
+    pub(crate) fn run_generator(
+        &mut self,
+        span: LightSpan,
+        frame_id: usize,
+        state: GeneratorState,
+        mut generator: Generator,
+        initial_message: Option<GeneratorResponse>,
+    ) -> EvalResult<bool> {
+        // Determine what to send to the generator based on its state.
+        let mut message = match (initial_message, state) {
+            (Some(msg), _) => msg,
+            (_, GeneratorState::Running) => GeneratorResponse::Empty,
+
+            // If control returned here, and the generator is
+            // awaiting a value, send it the top of the stack.
+            (_, GeneratorState::AwaitingValue) => GeneratorResponse::Value(self.stack_pop()),
+        };
+
+        loop {
+            match generator.resume_with(message) {
+                // If the generator yields, it contains an instruction
+                // for what the VM should do.
+                genawaiter::GeneratorState::Yielded(request) => {
+                    self.observer.observe_generator_request(&request);
+
+                    match request {
+                        GeneratorRequest::StackPush(value) => {
+                            self.stack.push(value);
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Empty;
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::StackPop => {
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Value(self.stack_pop());
+                        }
+
+                        // Generator has requested a force, which means that
+                        // this function prepares the frame stack and yields
+                        // back to the outer VM loop.
+                        GeneratorRequest::ForceValue(value) => {
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span.clone(), generator);
+                            self.enqueue_generator(span, |co| value.force(co));
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+
+                        // Generator has requested a deep-force.
+                        GeneratorRequest::DeepForceValue(value, thunk_set) => {
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span.clone(), generator);
+                            self.enqueue_generator(span, |co| value.deep_force(co, thunk_set));
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+
+                        // Generator has requested a value from the with-stack.
+                        // Logic is similar to `ForceValue`, except with the
+                        // value being taken from that stack.
+                        GeneratorRequest::WithValue(idx) => {
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span.clone(), generator);
+
+                            let value = self.stack[self.with_stack[idx]].clone();
+                            self.enqueue_generator(span, |co| value.force(co));
+
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+
+                        // Generator has requested a value from the *captured*
+                        // with-stack. Logic is same as above, except for the
+                        // value being from that stack.
+                        GeneratorRequest::CapturedWithValue(idx) => {
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span.clone(), generator);
+
+                            let call_frame = self.last_call_frame()
+                                .expect("Tvix bug: generator requested captured with-value, but there is no call frame");
+
+                            let value = call_frame.upvalues.with_stack().unwrap()[idx].clone();
+                            self.enqueue_generator(span, |co| value.force(co));
+
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::NixEquality(values, ptr_eq) => {
+                            let values = *values;
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span.clone(), generator);
+                            self.enqueue_generator(span, |co| {
+                                values.0.nix_eq(values.1, co, ptr_eq)
+                            });
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::StringCoerce(val, kind) => {
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span.clone(), generator);
+                            self.enqueue_generator(span, |co| val.coerce_to_string(co, kind));
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::Call(callable) => {
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span.clone(), generator);
+                            self.tail_call_value(span, None, callable)?;
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::EnterLambda {
+                            lambda,
+                            upvalues,
+                            light_span,
+                        } => {
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span, generator);
+
+                            self.frames.push(Frame::CallFrame {
+                                span: light_span,
+                                call_frame: CallFrame {
+                                    lambda,
+                                    upvalues,
+                                    ip: CodeIdx(0),
+                                    stack_offset: self.stack.len(),
+                                },
+                            });
+
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::EmitWarning(kind) => {
+                            self.emit_warning(kind);
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Empty;
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::ImportCacheLookup(path) => {
+                            if let Some(cached) = self.import_cache.get(&path) {
+                                message = GeneratorResponse::Value(cached.clone());
+                            } else {
+                                message = GeneratorResponse::Empty;
+                            }
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::ImportCachePut(path, value) => {
+                            self.import_cache.insert(path, value);
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Empty;
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::PathImport(path) => {
+                            let imported = self
+                                .io_handle
+                                .import_path(&path)
+                                .map_err(|kind| Error::new(kind, span.span()))?;
+
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Path(imported);
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::ReadToString(path) => {
+                            let content = self
+                                .io_handle
+                                .read_to_string(path)
+                                .map_err(|kind| Error::new(kind, span.span()))?;
+
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Value(Value::String(content.into()))
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::PathExists(path) => {
+                            let exists = self
+                                .io_handle
+                                .path_exists(path)
+                                .map(Value::Bool)
+                                .map_err(|kind| Error::new(kind, span.span()))?;
+
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Value(exists);
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::ReadDir(path) => {
+                            let dir = self
+                                .io_handle
+                                .read_dir(path)
+                                .map_err(|kind| Error::new(kind, span.span()))?;
+
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Directory(dir);
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::Span => {
+                            message = GeneratorResponse::Span(self.reasonable_light_span());
+                        }
+
+                        GeneratorRequest::TryForce(value) => {
+                            self.try_eval_frames.push(frame_id);
+                            self.reenqueue_generator(span.clone(), generator);
+
+                            debug_assert!(
+                                self.frames.len() == frame_id + 1,
+                                "generator should be reenqueued with the same frame ID"
+                            );
+
+                            self.enqueue_generator(span, |co| value.force(co));
+                            return Ok(false);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // Generator has completed, and its result value should
+                // be left on the stack.
+                genawaiter::GeneratorState::Complete(result) => {
+                    let value = result.map_err(|kind| Error::new(kind, span.span()))?;
+                    self.stack.push(value);
+                    return Ok(true);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 pub type GenCo = Co<GeneratorRequest, GeneratorResponse>;
 
 // -- Implementation of concrete generator use-cases.
@@ -335,28 +568,6 @@ pub async fn request_deep_force(co: &GenCo, val: Value, thunk_set: SharedThunkSe
     }
 }
 
-/// Fetch and force a value on the with-stack from the VM.
-async fn fetch_forced_with(co: &GenCo, idx: usize) -> Value {
-    match co.yield_(GeneratorRequest::WithValue(idx)).await {
-        GeneratorResponse::Value(value) => value,
-        msg => panic!(
-            "Tvix bug: VM responded with incorrect generator message: {}",
-            msg
-        ),
-    }
-}
-
-/// Fetch and force a value on the *captured* with-stack from the VM.
-async fn fetch_captured_with(co: &GenCo, idx: usize) -> Value {
-    match co.yield_(GeneratorRequest::CapturedWithValue(idx)).await {
-        GeneratorResponse::Value(value) => value,
-        msg => panic!(
-            "Tvix bug: VM responded with incorrect generator message: {}",
-            msg
-        ),
-    }
-}
-
 /// Ask the VM to compare two values for equality.
 pub(crate) async fn check_equality(
     co: &GenCo,
@@ -486,34 +697,6 @@ pub(crate) async fn request_span(co: &GenCo) -> LightSpan {
     }
 }
 
-pub(crate) async fn neo_resolve_with(
-    co: GenCo,
-    ident: String,
-    vm_with_len: usize,
-    upvalue_with_len: usize,
-) -> Result<Value, ErrorKind> {
-    for with_stack_idx in (0..vm_with_len).rev() {
-        // TODO(tazjin): is this branch still live with the current with-thunking?
-        let with = fetch_forced_with(&co, with_stack_idx).await;
-
-        match with.to_attrs()?.select(&ident) {
-            None => continue,
-            Some(val) => return Ok(val.clone()),
-        }
-    }
-
-    for upvalue_with_idx in (0..upvalue_with_len).rev() {
-        let with = fetch_captured_with(&co, upvalue_with_idx).await;
-
-        match with.to_attrs()?.select(&ident) {
-            None => continue,
-            Some(val) => return Ok(val.clone()),
-        }
-    }
-
-    Err(ErrorKind::UnknownDynamicVariable(ident))
-}
-
 /// Call the given value as if it was an attribute set containing a functor. The
 /// arguments must already be prepared on the stack when a generator frame from
 /// this function is invoked.
diff --git a/tvix/eval/src/vm/macros.rs b/tvix/eval/src/vm/macros.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4c027b0f6440
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tvix/eval/src/vm/macros.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+/// This module provides macros which are used in the implementation
+/// of the VM for the implementation of repetitive operations.
+
+/// This macro simplifies the implementation of arithmetic operations,
+/// correctly handling the behaviour on different pairings of number
+/// types.
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! arithmetic_op {
+    ( $self:ident, $op:tt ) => {{ // TODO: remove
+        let b = $self.pop();
+        let a = $self.pop();
+        let result = fallible!($self, arithmetic_op!(&a, &b, $op));
+        $self.push(result);
+    }};
+
+    ( $a:expr, $b:expr, $op:tt ) => {{
+        match ($a, $b) {
+            (Value::Integer(i1), Value::Integer(i2)) => Ok(Value::Integer(i1 $op i2)),
+            (Value::Float(f1), Value::Float(f2)) => Ok(Value::Float(f1 $op f2)),
+            (Value::Integer(i1), Value::Float(f2)) => Ok(Value::Float(*i1 as f64 $op f2)),
+            (Value::Float(f1), Value::Integer(i2)) => Ok(Value::Float(f1 $op *i2 as f64)),
+
+            (v1, v2) => Err(ErrorKind::TypeError {
+                expected: "number (either int or float)",
+                actual: if v1.is_number() {
+                    v2.type_of()
+                } else {
+                    v1.type_of()
+                },
+            }),
+        }
+    }};
+}
+
+/// This macro simplifies the implementation of comparison operations.
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! cmp_op {
+    ( $vm:ident, $frame:ident, $span:ident, $op:tt ) => {{
+        let b = $vm.stack_pop();
+        let a = $vm.stack_pop();
+
+        async fn compare(a: Value, b: Value, co: GenCo) -> Result<Value, ErrorKind> {
+            let a = generators::request_force(&co, a).await;
+            let b = generators::request_force(&co, b).await;
+            let ordering = a.nix_cmp_ordering(b, co).await?;
+            Ok(Value::Bool(cmp_op!(@order $op ordering)))
+        }
+
+        let gen_span = $frame.current_light_span();
+        $vm.push_call_frame($span, $frame);
+        $vm.enqueue_generator(gen_span, |co| compare(a, b, co));
+        return Ok(false);
+    }};
+
+    (@order < $ordering:expr) => {
+        $ordering == Some(Ordering::Less)
+    };
+
+    (@order > $ordering:expr) => {
+        $ordering == Some(Ordering::Greater)
+    };
+
+    (@order <= $ordering:expr) => {
+        !matches!($ordering, None | Some(Ordering::Greater))
+    };
+
+    (@order >= $ordering:expr) => {
+        !matches!($ordering, None | Some(Ordering::Less))
+    };
+}
diff --git a/tvix/eval/src/vm/mod.rs b/tvix/eval/src/vm/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..4d38707ba023
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tvix/eval/src/vm/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1120 @@
+//! This module implements the abstract/virtual machine that runs Tvix
+//! bytecode.
+//!
+//! The operation of the VM is facilitated by the [`Frame`] type,
+//! which controls the current execution state of the VM and is
+//! processed within the VM's operating loop.
+//!
+//! A [`VM`] is used by instantiating it with an initial [`Frame`],
+//! then triggering its execution and waiting for the VM to return or
+//! yield an error.
+
+pub mod generators;
+mod macros;
+
+use serde_json::json;
+use std::{cmp::Ordering, collections::HashMap, ops::DerefMut, path::PathBuf, rc::Rc};
+
+use crate::{
+    arithmetic_op,
+    chunk::Chunk,
+    cmp_op,
+    compiler::GlobalsMap,
+    errors::{Error, ErrorKind, EvalResult},
+    io::EvalIO,
+    nix_search_path::NixSearchPath,
+    observer::RuntimeObserver,
+    opcode::{CodeIdx, Count, JumpOffset, OpCode, StackIdx, UpvalueIdx},
+    spans::LightSpan,
+    upvalues::Upvalues,
+    value::{
+        Builtin, BuiltinResult, Closure, CoercionKind, Lambda, NixAttrs, NixList, PointerEquality,
+        SharedThunkSet, Thunk, Value,
+    },
+    vm::generators::GenCo,
+    warnings::{EvalWarning, WarningKind},
+};
+
+use generators::{call_functor, Generator, GeneratorState};
+
+use self::generators::{GeneratorRequest, GeneratorResponse};
+
+/// Internal helper trait for ergonomically converting from a `Result<T,
+/// ErrorKind>` to a `Result<T, Error>` using the current span of a call frame.
+trait WithSpan<T> {
+    fn with_span(self, frame: &CallFrame) -> Result<T, Error>;
+}
+
+impl<T> WithSpan<T> for Result<T, ErrorKind> {
+    fn with_span(self, frame: &CallFrame) -> Result<T, Error> {
+        self.map_err(|kind| frame.error(kind))
+    }
+}
+
+struct CallFrame {
+    /// The lambda currently being executed.
+    lambda: Rc<Lambda>,
+
+    /// Optional captured upvalues of this frame (if a thunk or
+    /// closure if being evaluated).
+    upvalues: Rc<Upvalues>,
+
+    /// Instruction pointer to the instruction currently being
+    /// executed.
+    ip: CodeIdx,
+
+    /// Stack offset, i.e. the frames "view" into the VM's full stack.
+    stack_offset: usize,
+}
+
+impl CallFrame {
+    /// Retrieve an upvalue from this frame at the given index.
+    fn upvalue(&self, idx: UpvalueIdx) -> &Value {
+        &self.upvalues[idx]
+    }
+
+    /// Borrow the chunk of this frame's lambda.
+    fn chunk(&self) -> &Chunk {
+        &self.lambda.chunk
+    }
+
+    /// Increment this frame's instruction pointer and return the operation that
+    /// the pointer moved past.
+    fn inc_ip(&mut self) -> OpCode {
+        let op = self.chunk()[self.ip];
+        self.ip += 1;
+        op
+    }
+
+    /// Construct an error from the given ErrorKind and the source span of the
+    /// current instruction.
+    pub fn error(&self, kind: ErrorKind) -> Error {
+        Error::new(kind, self.chunk().get_span(self.ip - 1))
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the information needed to calculate the current span,
+    /// but without performing that calculation.
+    // TODO: why pub?
+    pub(crate) fn current_light_span(&self) -> LightSpan {
+        LightSpan::new_delayed(self.lambda.clone(), self.ip - 1)
+    }
+}
+
+/// A frame represents an execution state of the VM. The VM has a stack of
+/// frames representing the nesting of execution inside of the VM, and operates
+/// on the frame at the top.
+///
+/// When a frame has been fully executed, it is removed from the VM's frame
+/// stack and expected to leave a result [`Value`] on the top of the stack.
+enum Frame {
+    /// CallFrame represents the execution of Tvix bytecode within a thunk,
+    /// function or closure.
+    CallFrame {
+        /// The call frame itself, separated out into another type to pass it
+        /// around easily.
+        call_frame: CallFrame,
+
+        /// Span from which the call frame was launched.
+        span: LightSpan,
+    },
+
+    /// Generator represents a frame that can yield further
+    /// instructions to the VM while its execution is being driven.
+    ///
+    /// A generator is essentially an asynchronous function that can
+    /// be suspended while waiting for the VM to do something (e.g.
+    /// thunk forcing), and resume at the same point.
+    Generator {
+        /// Span from which the generator was launched.
+        span: LightSpan,
+
+        state: GeneratorState,
+
+        /// Generator itself, which can be resumed with `.resume()`.
+        generator: Generator,
+    },
+}
+
+impl Frame {
+    pub fn span(&self) -> LightSpan {
+        match self {
+            Frame::CallFrame { span, .. } | Frame::Generator { span, .. } => span.clone(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct VM<'o> {
+    /// VM's frame stack, representing the execution contexts the VM is working
+    /// through. Elements are usually pushed when functions are called, or
+    /// thunks are being forced.
+    frames: Vec<Frame>,
+
+    /// The VM's top-level value stack. Within this stack, each code-executing
+    /// frame holds a "view" of the stack representing the slice of the
+    /// top-level stack that is relevant to its operation. This is done to avoid
+    /// allocating a new `Vec` for each frame's stack.
+    pub(crate) stack: Vec<Value>,
+
+    /// Stack indices (absolute indexes into `stack`) of attribute
+    /// sets from which variables should be dynamically resolved
+    /// (`with`).
+    with_stack: Vec<usize>,
+
+    /// Runtime warnings collected during evaluation.
+    warnings: Vec<EvalWarning>,
+
+    /// Import cache, mapping absolute file paths to the value that
+    /// they compile to. Note that this reuses thunks, too!
+    // TODO: should probably be based on a file hash
+    pub import_cache: Box<HashMap<PathBuf, Value>>,
+
+    /// Parsed Nix search path, which is used to resolve `<...>`
+    /// references.
+    nix_search_path: NixSearchPath,
+
+    /// Implementation of I/O operations used for impure builtins and
+    /// features like `import`.
+    io_handle: Box<dyn EvalIO>,
+
+    /// Runtime observer which can print traces of runtime operations.
+    observer: &'o mut dyn RuntimeObserver,
+
+    /// Strong reference to the globals, guaranteeing that they are
+    /// kept alive for the duration of evaluation.
+    ///
+    /// This is important because recursive builtins (specifically
+    /// `import`) hold a weak reference to the builtins, while the
+    /// original strong reference is held by the compiler which does
+    /// not exist anymore at runtime.
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    globals: Rc<GlobalsMap>,
+
+    /// A reasonably applicable span that can be used for errors in each
+    /// execution situation.
+    ///
+    /// The VM should update this whenever control flow changes take place (i.e.
+    /// entering or exiting a frame to yield control somewhere).
+    reasonable_span: LightSpan,
+
+    /// This field is responsible for handling `builtins.tryEval`. When that
+    /// builtin is encountered, it sends a special message to the VM which
+    /// pushes the frame index that requested to be informed of catchable
+    /// errors in this field.
+    ///
+    /// The frame stack is then laid out like this:
+    ///
+    /// ```notrust
+    /// ┌──┬──────────────────────────┐
+    /// │ 0│ `Result`-producing frame │
+    /// ├──┼──────────────────────────┤
+    /// │-1│ `builtins.tryEval` frame │
+    /// ├──┼──────────────────────────┤
+    /// │..│ ... other frames ...     │
+    /// └──┴──────────────────────────┘
+    /// ```
+    ///
+    /// Control is yielded to the outer VM loop, which evaluates the next frame
+    /// and returns the result itself to the `builtins.tryEval` frame.
+    try_eval_frames: Vec<usize>,
+}
+
+impl<'o> VM<'o> {
+    pub fn new(
+        nix_search_path: NixSearchPath,
+        io_handle: Box<dyn EvalIO>,
+        observer: &'o mut dyn RuntimeObserver,
+        globals: Rc<GlobalsMap>,
+        reasonable_span: LightSpan,
+    ) -> Self {
+        // Backtrace-on-stack-overflow is some seriously weird voodoo and
+        // very unsafe.  This double-guard prevents it from accidentally
+        // being enabled on release builds.
+        #[cfg(debug_assertions)]
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtrace_overflow")]
+        unsafe {
+            backtrace_on_stack_overflow::enable();
+        };
+
+        Self {
+            nix_search_path,
+            io_handle,
+            observer,
+            globals,
+            reasonable_span,
+            frames: vec![],
+            stack: vec![],
+            with_stack: vec![],
+            warnings: vec![],
+            import_cache: Default::default(),
+            try_eval_frames: vec![],
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Push a call frame onto the frame stack.
+    fn push_call_frame(&mut self, span: LightSpan, call_frame: CallFrame) {
+        self.frames.push(Frame::CallFrame { span, call_frame })
+    }
+
+    /// Run the VM's primary (outer) execution loop, continuing execution based
+    /// on the current frame at the top of the frame stack.
+    fn execute(mut self) -> EvalResult<RuntimeResult> {
+        let mut catchable_error_occurred = false;
+
+        while let Some(frame) = self.frames.pop() {
+            self.reasonable_span = frame.span();
+            let frame_id = self.frames.len();
+
+            match frame {
+                Frame::CallFrame { call_frame, span } => {
+                    self.observer
+                        .observe_enter_call_frame(0, &call_frame.lambda, frame_id);
+
+                    match self.execute_bytecode(span, call_frame) {
+                        Ok(true) => self.observer.observe_exit_call_frame(frame_id, &self.stack),
+                        Ok(false) => self
+                            .observer
+                            .observe_suspend_call_frame(frame_id, &self.stack),
+
+                        Err(err) => {
+                            if let Some(catching_frame_idx) = self.try_eval_frames.pop() {
+                                if err.kind.is_catchable() {
+                                    self.observer.observe_exit_call_frame(frame_id, &self.stack);
+                                    catchable_error_occurred = true;
+
+                                    // truncate the frame stack back to the
+                                    // frame that can catch this error
+                                    self.frames.truncate(/* len = */ catching_frame_idx + 1);
+                                    continue;
+                                }
+                            }
+
+                            return Err(err);
+                        }
+                    };
+                }
+
+                // Handle generator frames, which can request thunk forcing
+                // during their execution.
+                Frame::Generator {
+                    span,
+                    state,
+                    generator,
+                } => {
+                    self.observer.observe_enter_generator(frame_id, &self.stack);
+
+                    let initial_msg = if catchable_error_occurred {
+                        catchable_error_occurred = false;
+                        Some(GeneratorResponse::ForceError)
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+
+                    match self.run_generator(span, frame_id, state, generator, initial_msg) {
+                        Ok(true) => self.observer.observe_exit_generator(frame_id, &self.stack),
+                        Ok(false) => self
+                            .observer
+                            .observe_suspend_generator(frame_id, &self.stack),
+
+                        Err(err) => {
+                            if let Some(catching_frame_idx) = self.try_eval_frames.pop() {
+                                if err.kind.is_catchable() {
+                                    self.observer.observe_exit_generator(frame_id, &self.stack);
+                                    catchable_error_occurred = true;
+
+                                    // truncate the frame stack back to the
+                                    // frame that can catch this error
+                                    self.frames.truncate(/* len = */ catching_frame_idx + 1);
+                                    continue;
+                                }
+                            }
+
+                            return Err(err);
+                        }
+                    };
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Once no more frames are present, return the stack's top value as the
+        // result.
+        Ok(RuntimeResult {
+            value: self
+                .stack
+                .pop()
+                .expect("tvix bug: runtime stack empty after execution"),
+
+            warnings: self.warnings,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Run the VM's inner execution loop, processing Tvix bytecode from a
+    /// chunk. This function returns if:
+    ///
+    /// 1. The code has run to the end, and has left a value on the top of the
+    ///    stack. In this case, the frame is not returned to the frame stack.
+    ///
+    /// 2. The code encounters a generator, in which case the frame in its
+    /// current state is pushed back on the stack, and the generator is left on
+    /// top of it for the outer loop to execute.
+    ///
+    /// 3. An error is encountered.
+    ///
+    /// This function *must* ensure that it leaves the frame stack in the
+    /// correct order, especially when re-enqueuing a frame to execute.
+    ///
+    /// The return value indicates whether the bytecode has been executed to
+    /// completion, or whether it has been suspended in favour of a generator.
+    fn execute_bytecode(&mut self, span: LightSpan, mut frame: CallFrame) -> EvalResult<bool> {
+        loop {
+            let op = frame.inc_ip();
+            self.observer.observe_execute_op(frame.ip, &op, &self.stack);
+
+            // TODO: might be useful to reorder ops with most frequent ones first
+            match op {
+                // Discard the current frame.
+                OpCode::OpReturn => {
+                    return Ok(true);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpConstant(idx) => {
+                    let c = frame.chunk()[idx].clone();
+                    self.stack.push(c);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpPop => {
+                    self.stack.pop();
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpAdd => {
+                    let b = self.stack_pop();
+                    let a = self.stack_pop();
+
+                    let gen_span = frame.current_light_span();
+                    self.push_call_frame(span, frame);
+
+                    // OpAdd can add not just numbers, but also string-like
+                    // things, which requires more VM logic. This operation is
+                    // evaluated in a generator frame.
+                    self.enqueue_generator(gen_span, |co| add_values(co, a, b));
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpSub => {
+                    let b = self.stack_pop();
+                    let a = self.stack_pop();
+                    let result = arithmetic_op!(&a, &b, -).with_span(&frame)?;
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpMul => {
+                    let b = self.stack_pop();
+                    let a = self.stack_pop();
+                    let result = arithmetic_op!(&a, &b, *).with_span(&frame)?;
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpDiv => {
+                    let b = self.stack_pop();
+
+                    match b {
+                        Value::Integer(0) => return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::DivisionByZero)),
+                        Value::Float(b) if b == 0.0_f64 => {
+                            return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::DivisionByZero))
+                        }
+                        _ => {}
+                    };
+
+                    let a = self.stack_pop();
+                    let result = arithmetic_op!(&a, &b, /).with_span(&frame)?;
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpInvert => {
+                    let v = self.stack_pop().as_bool().with_span(&frame)?;
+                    self.stack.push(Value::Bool(!v));
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpNegate => match self.stack_pop() {
+                    Value::Integer(i) => self.stack.push(Value::Integer(-i)),
+                    Value::Float(f) => self.stack.push(Value::Float(-f)),
+                    v => {
+                        return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::TypeError {
+                            expected: "number (either int or float)",
+                            actual: v.type_of(),
+                        }));
+                    }
+                },
+
+                OpCode::OpEqual => {
+                    let b = self.stack_pop();
+                    let a = self.stack_pop();
+                    let gen_span = frame.current_light_span();
+                    self.push_call_frame(span, frame);
+                    self.enqueue_generator(gen_span, |co| {
+                        a.nix_eq(b, co, PointerEquality::ForbidAll)
+                    });
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpLess => cmp_op!(self, frame, span, <),
+                OpCode::OpLessOrEq => cmp_op!(self, frame, span, <=),
+                OpCode::OpMore => cmp_op!(self, frame, span, >),
+                OpCode::OpMoreOrEq => cmp_op!(self, frame, span, >=),
+
+                OpCode::OpAttrs(Count(count)) => self.run_attrset(&frame, count)?,
+
+                OpCode::OpAttrsUpdate => {
+                    let rhs = self.stack_pop().to_attrs().with_span(&frame)?;
+                    let lhs = self.stack_pop().to_attrs().with_span(&frame)?;
+
+                    self.stack.push(Value::attrs(lhs.update(*rhs)))
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpAttrsSelect => {
+                    let key = self.stack_pop().to_str().with_span(&frame)?;
+                    let attrs = self.stack_pop().to_attrs().with_span(&frame)?;
+
+                    match attrs.select(key.as_str()) {
+                        Some(value) => self.stack.push(value.clone()),
+
+                        None => {
+                            return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::AttributeNotFound {
+                                name: key.as_str().to_string(),
+                            }))
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpAttrsTrySelect => {
+                    let key = self.stack_pop().to_str().with_span(&frame)?;
+                    let value = match self.stack_pop() {
+                        Value::Attrs(attrs) => match attrs.select(key.as_str()) {
+                            Some(value) => value.clone(),
+                            None => Value::AttrNotFound,
+                        },
+
+                        _ => Value::AttrNotFound,
+                    };
+
+                    self.stack.push(value);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpHasAttr => {
+                    let key = self.stack_pop().to_str().with_span(&frame)?;
+                    let result = match self.stack_pop() {
+                        Value::Attrs(attrs) => attrs.contains(key.as_str()),
+
+                        // Nix allows use of `?` on non-set types, but
+                        // always returns false in those cases.
+                        _ => false,
+                    };
+
+                    self.stack.push(Value::Bool(result));
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpValidateClosedFormals => {
+                    let formals = frame.lambda.formals.as_ref().expect(
+                        "OpValidateClosedFormals called within the frame of a lambda without formals",
+                    );
+
+                    let args = self.stack_peek(0).to_attrs().with_span(&frame)?;
+                    for arg in args.keys() {
+                        if !formals.contains(arg) {
+                            return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::UnexpectedArgument {
+                                arg: arg.clone(),
+                                formals_span: formals.span,
+                            }));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpList(Count(count)) => {
+                    let list =
+                        NixList::construct(count, self.stack.split_off(self.stack.len() - count));
+
+                    self.stack.push(Value::List(list));
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpConcat => {
+                    let rhs = self.stack_pop().to_list().with_span(&frame)?.into_inner();
+                    let lhs = self.stack_pop().to_list().with_span(&frame)?.into_inner();
+                    self.stack.push(Value::List(NixList::from(lhs + rhs)))
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpInterpolate(Count(count)) => self.run_interpolate(&frame, count)?,
+
+                OpCode::OpCoerceToString => {
+                    let value = self.stack_pop();
+                    let gen_span = frame.current_light_span();
+                    self.push_call_frame(span, frame);
+
+                    self.enqueue_generator(gen_span, |co| {
+                        value.coerce_to_string(co, CoercionKind::Weak)
+                    });
+
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpFindFile => match self.stack_pop() {
+                    Value::UnresolvedPath(path) => {
+                        let resolved = self.nix_search_path.resolve(path).with_span(&frame)?;
+                        self.stack.push(resolved.into());
+                    }
+
+                    _ => panic!("tvix compiler bug: OpFindFile called on non-UnresolvedPath"),
+                },
+
+                OpCode::OpResolveHomePath => match self.stack_pop() {
+                    Value::UnresolvedPath(path) => {
+                        match dirs::home_dir() {
+                            None => {
+                                return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::RelativePathResolution(
+                                    "failed to determine home directory".into(),
+                                )));
+                            }
+                            Some(mut buf) => {
+                                buf.push(path);
+                                self.stack.push(buf.into());
+                            }
+                        };
+                    }
+
+                    _ => {
+                        panic!("tvix compiler bug: OpResolveHomePath called on non-UnresolvedPath")
+                    }
+                },
+
+                OpCode::OpJump(JumpOffset(offset)) => {
+                    debug_assert!(offset != 0);
+                    frame.ip += offset;
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpJumpIfTrue(JumpOffset(offset)) => {
+                    debug_assert!(offset != 0);
+                    if self.stack_peek(0).as_bool().with_span(&frame)? {
+                        frame.ip += offset;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpJumpIfFalse(JumpOffset(offset)) => {
+                    debug_assert!(offset != 0);
+                    if !self.stack_peek(0).as_bool().with_span(&frame)? {
+                        frame.ip += offset;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpJumpIfNotFound(JumpOffset(offset)) => {
+                    debug_assert!(offset != 0);
+                    if matches!(self.stack_peek(0), Value::AttrNotFound) {
+                        self.stack_pop();
+                        frame.ip += offset;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // These assertion operations error out if the stack
+                // top is not of the expected type. This is necessary
+                // to implement some specific behaviours of Nix
+                // exactly.
+                OpCode::OpAssertBool => {
+                    let val = self.stack_peek(0);
+                    if !val.is_bool() {
+                        return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::TypeError {
+                            expected: "bool",
+                            actual: val.type_of(),
+                        }));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // Remove the given number of elements from the stack,
+                // but retain the top value.
+                OpCode::OpCloseScope(Count(count)) => {
+                    // Immediately move the top value into the right
+                    // position.
+                    let target_idx = self.stack.len() - 1 - count;
+                    self.stack[target_idx] = self.stack_pop();
+
+                    // Then drop the remaining values.
+                    for _ in 0..(count - 1) {
+                        self.stack.pop();
+                    }
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpGetLocal(StackIdx(local_idx)) => {
+                    let idx = frame.stack_offset + local_idx;
+                    self.stack.push(self.stack[idx].clone());
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpPushWith(StackIdx(idx)) => self.with_stack.push(frame.stack_offset + idx),
+
+                OpCode::OpPopWith => {
+                    self.with_stack.pop();
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpResolveWith => {
+                    let ident = self.stack_pop().to_str().with_span(&frame)?;
+
+                    // Re-enqueue this frame.
+                    let op_span = frame.current_light_span();
+                    self.push_call_frame(span, frame);
+
+                    // Construct a generator frame doing the lookup in constant
+                    // stack space.
+                    let with_stack_len = self.with_stack.len();
+                    let closed_with_stack_len = self
+                        .last_call_frame()
+                        .map(|frame| frame.upvalues.with_stack_len())
+                        .unwrap_or(0);
+
+                    self.enqueue_generator(op_span, |co| {
+                        resolve_with(
+                            co,
+                            ident.as_str().to_owned(),
+                            with_stack_len,
+                            closed_with_stack_len,
+                        )
+                    });
+
+                    return Ok(false);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpAssertFail => {
+                    return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::AssertionFailed));
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpCall => {
+                    let callable = self.stack_pop();
+                    self.tail_call_value(frame.current_light_span(), Some(frame), callable)?;
+
+                    // exit this loop and let the outer loop enter the new call
+                    return Ok(true);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpGetUpvalue(upv_idx) => {
+                    let value = frame.upvalue(upv_idx).clone();
+                    self.stack.push(value);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpClosure(idx) => {
+                    let blueprint = match &frame.chunk()[idx] {
+                        Value::Blueprint(lambda) => lambda.clone(),
+                        _ => panic!("compiler bug: non-blueprint in blueprint slot"),
+                    };
+
+                    let upvalue_count = blueprint.upvalue_count;
+                    debug_assert!(
+                        upvalue_count > 0,
+                        "OpClosure should not be called for plain lambdas"
+                    );
+
+                    let mut upvalues = Upvalues::with_capacity(blueprint.upvalue_count);
+                    self.populate_upvalues(&mut frame, upvalue_count, &mut upvalues)?;
+                    self.stack
+                        .push(Value::Closure(Rc::new(Closure::new_with_upvalues(
+                            Rc::new(upvalues),
+                            blueprint,
+                        ))));
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpThunkSuspended(idx) | OpCode::OpThunkClosure(idx) => {
+                    let blueprint = match &frame.chunk()[idx] {
+                        Value::Blueprint(lambda) => lambda.clone(),
+                        _ => panic!("compiler bug: non-blueprint in blueprint slot"),
+                    };
+
+                    let upvalue_count = blueprint.upvalue_count;
+                    let thunk = if matches!(op, OpCode::OpThunkClosure(_)) {
+                        debug_assert!(
+                            upvalue_count > 0,
+                            "OpThunkClosure should not be called for plain lambdas"
+                        );
+                        Thunk::new_closure(blueprint)
+                    } else {
+                        Thunk::new_suspended(blueprint, frame.current_light_span())
+                    };
+                    let upvalues = thunk.upvalues_mut();
+                    self.stack.push(Value::Thunk(thunk.clone()));
+
+                    // From this point on we internally mutate the
+                    // upvalues. The closure (if `is_closure`) is
+                    // already in its stack slot, which means that it
+                    // can capture itself as an upvalue for
+                    // self-recursion.
+                    self.populate_upvalues(&mut frame, upvalue_count, upvalues)?;
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpForce => {
+                    if let Some(Value::Thunk(_)) = self.stack.last() {
+                        let thunk = match self.stack_pop() {
+                            Value::Thunk(t) => t,
+                            _ => unreachable!(),
+                        };
+
+                        let gen_span = frame.current_light_span();
+
+                        self.push_call_frame(span, frame);
+                        self.enqueue_generator(gen_span, |co| thunk.force(co));
+                        return Ok(false);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                OpCode::OpFinalise(StackIdx(idx)) => {
+                    match &self.stack[frame.stack_offset + idx] {
+                        Value::Closure(_) => panic!("attempted to finalise a closure"),
+                        Value::Thunk(thunk) => thunk.finalise(&self.stack[frame.stack_offset..]),
+
+                        // In functions with "formals" attributes, it is
+                        // possible for `OpFinalise` to be called on a
+                        // non-capturing value, in which case it is a no-op.
+                        //
+                        // TODO: detect this in some phase and skip the finalise; fail here
+                        _ => { /* TODO: panic here again to catch bugs */ }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // Data-carrying operands should never be executed,
+                // that is a critical error in the VM/compiler.
+                OpCode::DataStackIdx(_)
+                | OpCode::DataDeferredLocal(_)
+                | OpCode::DataUpvalueIdx(_)
+                | OpCode::DataCaptureWith => {
+                    panic!("Tvix bug: attempted to execute data-carrying operand")
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Implementation of helper functions for the runtime logic above.
+impl<'o> VM<'o> {
+    pub(crate) fn stack_pop(&mut self) -> Value {
+        self.stack.pop().expect("runtime stack empty")
+    }
+
+    fn stack_peek(&self, offset: usize) -> &Value {
+        &self.stack[self.stack.len() - 1 - offset]
+    }
+
+    fn run_attrset(&mut self, frame: &CallFrame, count: usize) -> EvalResult<()> {
+        let attrs = NixAttrs::construct(count, self.stack.split_off(self.stack.len() - count * 2))
+            .with_span(frame)?;
+
+        self.stack.push(Value::attrs(attrs));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Access the last call frame present in the frame stack.
+    fn last_call_frame(&self) -> Option<&CallFrame> {
+        for frame in self.frames.iter().rev() {
+            if let Frame::CallFrame { call_frame, .. } = frame {
+                return Some(call_frame);
+            }
+        }
+
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Push an already constructed warning.
+    pub fn push_warning(&mut self, warning: EvalWarning) {
+        self.warnings.push(warning);
+    }
+
+    /// Emit a warning with the given WarningKind and the source span
+    /// of the current instruction.
+    pub fn emit_warning(&mut self, _kind: WarningKind) {
+        // TODO: put LightSpan in warning, calculate only *after* eval
+        // TODO: what to do with the spans?
+        // self.push_warning(EvalWarning {
+        //     kind,
+        //     span: self.current_span(),
+        // });
+    }
+
+    /// Interpolate string fragments by popping the specified number of
+    /// fragments of the stack, evaluating them to strings, and pushing
+    /// the concatenated result string back on the stack.
+    fn run_interpolate(&mut self, frame: &CallFrame, count: usize) -> EvalResult<()> {
+        let mut out = String::new();
+
+        for _ in 0..count {
+            out.push_str(self.stack_pop().to_str().with_span(frame)?.as_str());
+        }
+
+        self.stack.push(Value::String(out.into()));
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reasonable light span for the current situation that the VM is
+    /// in.
+    pub fn reasonable_light_span(&self) -> LightSpan {
+        self.reasonable_span.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Construct an error from the given ErrorKind and the source
+    /// span of the current instruction.
+    pub fn error(&self, kind: ErrorKind) -> Error {
+        Error::new(kind, self.reasonable_span.span())
+    }
+
+    /// Apply an argument from the stack to a builtin, and attempt to call it.
+    ///
+    /// All calls are tail-calls in Tvix, as every function application is a
+    /// separate thunk and OpCall is thus the last result in the thunk.
+    ///
+    /// Due to this, once control flow exits this function, the generator will
+    /// automatically be run by the VM.
+    fn call_builtin(&mut self, span: LightSpan, mut builtin: Builtin) -> EvalResult<()> {
+        let builtin_name = builtin.name();
+        self.observer.observe_enter_builtin(builtin_name);
+
+        builtin.apply_arg(self.stack_pop());
+
+        match builtin.call() {
+            // Partially applied builtin is just pushed back on the stack.
+            BuiltinResult::Partial(partial) => self.stack.push(Value::Builtin(partial)),
+
+            // Builtin is fully applied and the generator needs to be run by the VM.
+            BuiltinResult::Called(generator) => self.frames.push(Frame::Generator {
+                generator,
+                span,
+                state: GeneratorState::Running,
+            }),
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn tail_call_value(
+        &mut self,
+        span: LightSpan,
+        parent: Option<CallFrame>,
+        callable: Value,
+    ) -> EvalResult<()> {
+        match callable {
+            Value::Builtin(builtin) => self.call_builtin(span, builtin),
+            Value::Thunk(thunk) => self.tail_call_value(span, parent, thunk.value().clone()),
+
+            Value::Closure(closure) => {
+                let lambda = closure.lambda();
+                self.observer.observe_tail_call(self.frames.len(), &lambda);
+
+                // The stack offset is always `stack.len() - arg_count`, and
+                // since this branch handles native Nix functions (which always
+                // take only a single argument and are curried), the offset is
+                // `stack_len - 1`.
+                let stack_offset = self.stack.len() - 1;
+
+                self.push_call_frame(
+                    span,
+                    CallFrame {
+                        lambda,
+                        upvalues: closure.upvalues(),
+                        ip: CodeIdx(0),
+                        stack_offset,
+                    },
+                );
+
+                Ok(())
+            }
+
+            // Attribute sets with a __functor attribute are callable.
+            val @ Value::Attrs(_) => {
+                let gen_span = parent
+                    .map(|p| p.current_light_span())
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| self.reasonable_light_span());
+
+                self.enqueue_generator(gen_span, |co| call_functor(co, val));
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            v => Err(self.error(ErrorKind::NotCallable(v.type_of()))),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Populate the upvalue fields of a thunk or closure under construction.
+    fn populate_upvalues(
+        &mut self,
+        frame: &mut CallFrame,
+        count: usize,
+        mut upvalues: impl DerefMut<Target = Upvalues>,
+    ) -> EvalResult<()> {
+        for _ in 0..count {
+            match frame.inc_ip() {
+                OpCode::DataStackIdx(StackIdx(stack_idx)) => {
+                    let idx = frame.stack_offset + stack_idx;
+
+                    let val = match self.stack.get(idx) {
+                        Some(val) => val.clone(),
+                        None => {
+                            return Err(frame.error(ErrorKind::TvixBug {
+                                msg: "upvalue to be captured was missing on stack",
+                                metadata: Some(Rc::new(json!({
+                                    "ip": format!("{:#x}", frame.ip.0 - 1),
+                                    "stack_idx(relative)": stack_idx,
+                                    "stack_idx(absolute)": idx,
+                                }))),
+                            }))
+                        }
+                    };
+
+                    upvalues.deref_mut().push(val);
+                }
+
+                OpCode::DataUpvalueIdx(upv_idx) => {
+                    upvalues.deref_mut().push(frame.upvalue(upv_idx).clone());
+                }
+
+                OpCode::DataDeferredLocal(idx) => {
+                    upvalues.deref_mut().push(Value::DeferredUpvalue(idx));
+                }
+
+                OpCode::DataCaptureWith => {
+                    // Start the captured with_stack off of the
+                    // current call frame's captured with_stack, ...
+                    let mut captured_with_stack = frame
+                        .upvalues
+                        .with_stack()
+                        .map(Clone::clone)
+                        // ... or make an empty one if there isn't one already.
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| Vec::with_capacity(self.with_stack.len()));
+
+                    for idx in &self.with_stack {
+                        captured_with_stack.push(self.stack[*idx].clone());
+                    }
+
+                    upvalues.deref_mut().set_with_stack(captured_with_stack);
+                }
+
+                _ => panic!("compiler error: missing closure operand"),
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fetch and force a value on the with-stack from the VM.
+async fn fetch_forced_with(co: &GenCo, idx: usize) -> Value {
+    match co.yield_(GeneratorRequest::WithValue(idx)).await {
+        GeneratorResponse::Value(value) => value,
+        msg => panic!(
+            "Tvix bug: VM responded with incorrect generator message: {}",
+            msg
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fetch and force a value on the *captured* with-stack from the VM.
+async fn fetch_captured_with(co: &GenCo, idx: usize) -> Value {
+    match co.yield_(GeneratorRequest::CapturedWithValue(idx)).await {
+        GeneratorResponse::Value(value) => value,
+        msg => panic!(
+            "Tvix bug: VM responded with incorrect generator message: {}",
+            msg
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Resolve a dynamically bound identifier (through `with`) by looking
+/// for matching values in the with-stacks carried at runtime.
+async fn resolve_with(
+    co: GenCo,
+    ident: String,
+    vm_with_len: usize,
+    upvalue_with_len: usize,
+) -> Result<Value, ErrorKind> {
+    for with_stack_idx in (0..vm_with_len).rev() {
+        // TODO(tazjin): is this branch still live with the current with-thunking?
+        let with = fetch_forced_with(&co, with_stack_idx).await;
+
+        match with.to_attrs()?.select(&ident) {
+            None => continue,
+            Some(val) => return Ok(val.clone()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    for upvalue_with_idx in (0..upvalue_with_len).rev() {
+        let with = fetch_captured_with(&co, upvalue_with_idx).await;
+
+        match with.to_attrs()?.select(&ident) {
+            None => continue,
+            Some(val) => return Ok(val.clone()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    Err(ErrorKind::UnknownDynamicVariable(ident))
+}
+
+async fn add_values(co: GenCo, a: Value, b: Value) -> Result<Value, ErrorKind> {
+    let result = match (a, b) {
+        (Value::Path(p), v) => {
+            let mut path = p.to_string_lossy().into_owned();
+            let vs = generators::request_string_coerce(&co, v, CoercionKind::Weak).await;
+            path.push_str(vs.as_str());
+            crate::value::canon_path(PathBuf::from(path)).into()
+        }
+        (Value::String(s1), Value::String(s2)) => Value::String(s1.concat(&s2)),
+        (Value::String(s1), v) => Value::String(
+            s1.concat(&generators::request_string_coerce(&co, v, CoercionKind::Weak).await),
+        ),
+        (v, Value::String(s2)) => Value::String(
+            generators::request_string_coerce(&co, v, CoercionKind::Weak)
+                .await
+                .concat(&s2),
+        ),
+        (a, b) => arithmetic_op!(&a, &b, +)?,
+    };
+
+    Ok(result)
+}
+
+/// The result of a VM's runtime evaluation.
+pub struct RuntimeResult {
+    pub value: Value,
+    pub warnings: Vec<EvalWarning>,
+}
+
+/// Generator that retrieves the final value from the stack, and deep-forces it
+/// before returning.
+async fn final_deep_force(co: GenCo) -> Result<Value, ErrorKind> {
+    let value = generators::request_stack_pop(&co).await;
+    Ok(generators::request_deep_force(&co, value, SharedThunkSet::default()).await)
+}
+
+pub fn run_lambda(
+    nix_search_path: NixSearchPath,
+    io_handle: Box<dyn EvalIO>,
+    observer: &mut dyn RuntimeObserver,
+    globals: Rc<GlobalsMap>,
+    lambda: Rc<Lambda>,
+) -> EvalResult<RuntimeResult> {
+    // Retain the top-level span of the expression in this lambda, as
+    // synthetic "calls" in deep_force will otherwise not have a span
+    // to fall back to.
+    //
+    // We exploit the fact that the compiler emits a final instruction
+    // with the span of the entire file for top-level expressions.
+    let root_span = lambda.chunk.get_span(CodeIdx(lambda.chunk.code.len() - 1));
+
+    let mut vm = VM::new(
+        nix_search_path,
+        io_handle,
+        observer,
+        globals,
+        root_span.into(),
+    );
+
+    // Synthesise a frame that will instruct the VM to deep-force the final
+    // value before returning it.
+    vm.enqueue_generator(root_span.into(), final_deep_force);
+
+    vm.frames.push(Frame::CallFrame {
+        span: root_span.into(),
+        call_frame: CallFrame {
+            lambda,
+            upvalues: Rc::new(Upvalues::with_capacity(0)),
+            ip: CodeIdx(0),
+            stack_offset: 0,
+        },
+    });
+
+    vm.execute()
+}